Summary: Grinde, Donald A., Jr., and Quintard Taylor. "Red vs Black: Conflict and Accommodation in the Post Civil War Indian Territory, 1865-1907." American Indian Quarterly 8.3 (1984): 211-29. JSTOR. Web. 24 June 2013.
by Elizabeth Williams
In the article, “Red vs Black: Conflict and Accommodation in the Post Civil War Indian Territory, 1865-1907,” Grinde and Taylor discuss the reasons for conflict between Native Americans and African Americans in Indian Territory and the neighboring territory to the west, Oklahoma Territory. The racial tensions in the Native American community first developed internally from the discrimination and conflict between the Five Civilized Tribes: Seminoles, Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Choctaws. As time passed, slavery, the Civil War, and immigration into Indian Territory have combined to antagonize the already present strain on race relations. Instead of harboring resentment towards one another, the Five Civilized Tribes directed their hostility to the African American race and the white man.
On June 23, 1865 the Confederate Indian Commander surrendered to the Union, nullifying all previous treaties between the Federal Government and the Indian Nations. “New treaties negotiated in 1866 abolished slavery, required the tribes to cede the western half of their land to the government, and called for reorganized tribal government” (212). The new treaties emancipated 7,000 once enslaved African Americans. Each of the Five Civilized Tribes dealt with the black freedmen differently. “The level of acceptance and assimilation of the ex-slaves varied with the five nations, but generally paralleled tribal attitudes toward slavery, the Confederacy, and adoption of freedmen; Seminoles and Creeks were the most liberal, the Cherokees moderate, and the Choctaws and Chickasaws the most conservative” (214).
The Seminole and Creek tribes granted the freedmen full citizenship and tribal benefits, including political rights. The Cherokee also gave freedmen the opportunity for citizenship, with the stipulation of returning to live in Indian Territory within six months of the signed 1866 treaty. Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes were not as generous with their treatment of ex-slaves:
“Both nations enacted ‘Black Codes’ similar to those in Southern States which determined wages ex-slaves received for various jobs…Neither nation permitted the return of former slaves who left during the war; nor did they allow the remaining freedmen to vote or hold office, a right supposedly guaranteed by the 1866 treaty. For a brief period some Choctaws and Chickasaws resorted to violence to drive out unwanted blacks” (213).
Land allotment, education, political opportunities, and social acceptance are all topics presented by the authors as each issue was related to the individual tribes. Land allotment became the largest issue during the late 1880’s due to a large influx in population by white men looking for land and blacks looking for refuge in the poorly managed Indian Territory. The Federal Government’s treatment of the Native Americans, their lack of authority, and inconsistency in federal-tribal relations led to the increase in immigration to the area.
In 1907, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were unified and annexed into the Union as the state of Oklahoma. “The five tribes had lost political and economical control of the region promised exclusively to them by the federal government in 1830” (222). The Native Americans reacted with hostility towards the white newcomers and “state Negroes,” the name given to the blacks living in Indian Territory who came from neighboring states. “Indian leaders feared being overwhelmed by freedmen and ‘state Negroes’ in their own nations and reacted by increasing their social distance as the black population grew” (223). Racial tensions between the Five Civilized Tribes and African Americans continued throughout the 1900’s and have carried over into the new millennium. Currently, there is a 2012 pending court case involving Cherokee Nation’s attempts to revoke citizenship of Freedmen descendants.
by Elizabeth Williams
In the article, “Red vs Black: Conflict and Accommodation in the Post Civil War Indian Territory, 1865-1907,” Grinde and Taylor discuss the reasons for conflict between Native Americans and African Americans in Indian Territory and the neighboring territory to the west, Oklahoma Territory. The racial tensions in the Native American community first developed internally from the discrimination and conflict between the Five Civilized Tribes: Seminoles, Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Choctaws. As time passed, slavery, the Civil War, and immigration into Indian Territory have combined to antagonize the already present strain on race relations. Instead of harboring resentment towards one another, the Five Civilized Tribes directed their hostility to the African American race and the white man.
On June 23, 1865 the Confederate Indian Commander surrendered to the Union, nullifying all previous treaties between the Federal Government and the Indian Nations. “New treaties negotiated in 1866 abolished slavery, required the tribes to cede the western half of their land to the government, and called for reorganized tribal government” (212). The new treaties emancipated 7,000 once enslaved African Americans. Each of the Five Civilized Tribes dealt with the black freedmen differently. “The level of acceptance and assimilation of the ex-slaves varied with the five nations, but generally paralleled tribal attitudes toward slavery, the Confederacy, and adoption of freedmen; Seminoles and Creeks were the most liberal, the Cherokees moderate, and the Choctaws and Chickasaws the most conservative” (214).
The Seminole and Creek tribes granted the freedmen full citizenship and tribal benefits, including political rights. The Cherokee also gave freedmen the opportunity for citizenship, with the stipulation of returning to live in Indian Territory within six months of the signed 1866 treaty. Choctaw and Chickasaw tribes were not as generous with their treatment of ex-slaves:
“Both nations enacted ‘Black Codes’ similar to those in Southern States which determined wages ex-slaves received for various jobs…Neither nation permitted the return of former slaves who left during the war; nor did they allow the remaining freedmen to vote or hold office, a right supposedly guaranteed by the 1866 treaty. For a brief period some Choctaws and Chickasaws resorted to violence to drive out unwanted blacks” (213).
Land allotment, education, political opportunities, and social acceptance are all topics presented by the authors as each issue was related to the individual tribes. Land allotment became the largest issue during the late 1880’s due to a large influx in population by white men looking for land and blacks looking for refuge in the poorly managed Indian Territory. The Federal Government’s treatment of the Native Americans, their lack of authority, and inconsistency in federal-tribal relations led to the increase in immigration to the area.
In 1907, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were unified and annexed into the Union as the state of Oklahoma. “The five tribes had lost political and economical control of the region promised exclusively to them by the federal government in 1830” (222). The Native Americans reacted with hostility towards the white newcomers and “state Negroes,” the name given to the blacks living in Indian Territory who came from neighboring states. “Indian leaders feared being overwhelmed by freedmen and ‘state Negroes’ in their own nations and reacted by increasing their social distance as the black population grew” (223). Racial tensions between the Five Civilized Tribes and African Americans continued throughout the 1900’s and have carried over into the new millennium. Currently, there is a 2012 pending court case involving Cherokee Nation’s attempts to revoke citizenship of Freedmen descendants.
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